Today, Hebrew is a thriving language—used by millions of speakers around the world to communicate all their thoughts and desires.
For some two thousand years, Hebrew lay dormant as Jewish communities scattered across the globe, and adopted the languages of their new homes. By the late 1800s, Hebrew vocabulary was limited to archaic and religious concepts of the Hebrew Bible—and lacked words for everything from “newspaper” and “academia” to “muffin” and “car” and even “democracy”.
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Girls learn ancient Hebrew in Samaria, a region in modern day Palestine, in the early 1900s. (PHOTOGRAPH BY AMERICAN COLONY PHOTOGRAPHERS)
Hebrew never really died
The Jewish people were once known as Hebrews for their language, which flourished from the 13th to 2nd centuries B.C.—when the Old Testament was collected. Then Jews became increasingly ostracized and oppressed. Through the rise and fall of Rome, the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and beyond, they were forced to migrate around Europe and adopted the language of the country they were in. They also formed new languages like Yiddish which mixed Hebrew, German, and Slavic languages.
Still, the “People of the Book” continued to learn Hebrew, to read from the Bible and written Hebrew lived on for more than a millennium mostly through religious practice. There were exceptions: more educated Jews exchanged messages in Hebrew, sometimes between merchants for records of business, says Meirav Reuveny, a Hebrew language historian at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. A
trove of documents showed that some women, a group generally confined to domestic duties at the time, also wrote letters, exchanged legal documents, and recorded business in Hebrew. From the 10th to 14th centuries, there was an explosion of secular Hebrew poetry in Andalusia, Spain.
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda reads at his desk shortly before his death in 1922. Historian Cecil Roth famously said, “Before Ben‑Yehuda, Jews could speak Hebrew; after him, they did.”
PHOTOGRAPH BY LEBRECHT MUSIC & ARTS
Waking the Giant
In the 19th century, most Jews in Europe were still second-class citizens when a new movement – the Hebrew revivalists – emerged to expand Hebrew beyond the abstract concepts in the Bible—they wanted to use it to talk about modern events, politics, philosophy, and medicine – and use it as a way to inspire hope through the Jewish people’s glorious past.
Among them was Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, the father of Modern Hebrew . Born in 1858 in Lithuania, where Jews were heavily discriminated against and violent pogroms terrorized Jewish communities regularly, Ben-Yehuda traveled to Paris in 1878 where he was empowered by the growing Jewish nationalist movement he witnessed there. He believed Jews needed a country and language to flourish. He moved to Jerusalem in 1881, where he and his wife made the decision to only speak Hebrew—despite missing words for essential modern items and concepts. They raised their son Itamar Ben-Avi to be the first native Hebrew speaker in almost 2,000 years.
In the beginning, Hebrew went through growing pains: Ben-Yehuda made a dictionary of new Hebrew words (including מילון, or milon, the word for dictionary). and Hebrew newspapers across Europe invented their own words too.
A shop on New York City’s Lower East Side in 1940 is covered with signs written in Yiddish, which primarily uses the Hebrew alphabet.
PHOTOGRAPH BY CHARLES PHELPS CUSHING
Many people unwelcomed the change : swapping an ancient and sacred language to a new and strange one. Gradually, the language was standardized in the early 20th century. The first Modern Hebrew Dictionary was released in its completed form in 1922. As a result, Hebrew language schools were opened, and Hebrew became the language of instruction of all subjects in Jerusalem schools (
). After the state of Israel was established in 1948, people flocked from all over the world. Many young adults learned Hebrew through the young nation’s mandatory military service, though most families in Israel became Hebrew speakers over one to two generations. Today, almost everyone uses Hebrew, and 55% speak it as their native language*.
An unstoppable force
Modern Hebrew has changed significantly but still shares clear ties with Biblical Hebrew**.
The growing pains Hebrew experienced as it modernized during Ben-Yehuda’s time are echoed in controversies today. Inclusive language such as non-binary adaptations have proven difficult to adopt as Hebrew is significantly gendered. Modern words and concepts like “gaslighting” also stir debate about how much outside cultures are affecting the language. Language does naturally grow and fills the needs of users; today social media and email connect communities of Hebrew speakers far beyond Israel!
A boy learns the Hebrew alphabet as a member of a Black Jewish congregation in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City, circa 1955.
PHOTOGRAPH BY ARCHIVE PHOTOS
Yiddisher Black cantors 1925 – Harlem, NY
The Kaifeng Jews
Along the banks of the Yellow River in China’s Henan Province lies the ancient city of Kaifeng, one of China’s Seven Ancient Capitals.Theories abound on the date that Jews arrived in China. Some point to the period following Moses’ birth, others to the dispersion of the Ten Lost Tribes by the Assyrians in 720 BCE, and others to the Diaspora following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Although evidence to support any of these theories is lacking, there is also the likelihood that Jews reached China in the centuries following the Babylonian exile (6 th century BCE).
It is known that descendants of the exiles from the Land of Israel moved progressively eastward as they engaged in a thriving commerce by sea and along the trade routes of the Silk Road. Some who had lived in Persia, India and Bukhara may have settled in China. The earliest tangible proof of Jewish presence on Chinese soil comes from a fragment of a Judeo-Persian letter dating from the end of the 8th century (British Library Or. 8212/166), which was found by the Hungarian born British explorer Sir Aurel Stein in 1901 near Dandan-Uiliq, an important Buddhist trading centre on the Silk Road in Chinese Turkestan.
This letter (which was obviously en route, being a surface find) was written in Judeo-Persian (Persian in Hebrew script) by a Jewish merchant to a coreligionist in Persia with whom he was engaged in business, and discusses the sale of an inferior flock of sheep. It was written on locally-manufactured paper.
Fragment of a Judeo-Persian letter (Probably Khotan, China, 8th century.
There seems little doubt that Jews had been migrating to China in several groups over many centuries, and there is consensus among historians that Jews have been living continuously in China since the 9th century CE. Remarkably, even at its peak during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the Jewish population in China never exceeded 4,000 people. This makes their ability to maintain a distinct identity, avoiding the widespread assimilation typical of that era, all the more extraordinary.
Historians concur that one of the oldest Jewish communities in China is K’ae-fung-foo (Kaifeng, formerly known as P’ien-Liang), on the banks of the Yellow River, in the province of Henan, which was founded by Jewish traders who settled there by the mid-tenth century. Kaifeng had been the thriving capital of the emperors of the Song Dynasty, who ruled China for 166 years beginning in 960 CE.
One of the most striking aspects of the Kaifeng Jews was their adaptation to Chinese culture. They adopted Chinese surnames, such as Zhao, Zhang, and Ai, often bestowed by the Emperor as a sign of respect and integration. Inscriptions from 1672 and 1489 mention 73 and 14 clans, respectively, indicating a robust community structure. Despite these adaptations, they retained a distinct Jewish identity, passing down their traditions and religious knowledge through generations. Their religious life was vibrant, with a strong emphasis on communal worship and education. The synagogue served not only as a place of prayer but also as a centre for learning. The Torah and other Jewish texts were studied, and religious education was provided to the younger generations, ensuring the continuity of Jewish knowledge and practices.
A model of the Kaifeng synagogue at the Diaspora Museum, Tel Aviv
The Kaifeng synagogue, built in the traditional Chinese style, featured a large courtyard, prayer halls, and a mikvah (ritual bath). The synagogue complex also housed a library filled with sacred texts, some written in a unique blend of Hebrew and Chinese characters. The architecture of the synagogue reflected the integration of Jewish and Chinese aesthetics, with traditional Chinese roofs, intricate wooden carvings, and symbolic decorations.
The Jewish community flourished until the 18th century, but by the mid-19th century, it was already in a state of decline (and barely survived into the 20th century). In 1850, some 200 Jewish souls lived in Kaifeng. Not having had a rabbi for almost fifty years, the Kaifeng Jews lacked but the most basic knowledge of Judaism, and could no longer read and write Hebrew. Their magnificent synagogue faced multiple destructions due to natural disasters. The original building erected in 1163 was destroyed by a flood in 1461. Subsequent reconstructions faced similar fates: a fire in 1600, another flood in 1642, and finally, another devastating flood in the 1860s. Despite these setbacks, the community made considerable efforts to preserve their scriptures and religious artifacts. For instance, Gao Xuan, a member of the Gao clan, heroically dove into the flooded synagogue to rescue sacred scrolls, with the help of the seven clans who restored and rewrote the 13 scrolls. These artefacts included Torah scrolls, prayer books, and religious commentaries, many of which were carefully copied and restored after each disaster. The community’s resilience in the face of repeated calamities underscored their commitment to preserving their religious and cultural identity. The synagogue nonetheless provided a safe shelter to hapless and impoverished members of the community who, in order to earn a meagre living, sold bricks and wood from its ruins to their non-Jewish neighbours.
Membership list in a prayer book, in Hebrew characters (without vowel pointing) and Chinese characters, circa 17th century
These observations come from the diaries kept by two Chinese Christians, K’hew T’hëen-sang and Tsëang Yung-che, who in November 1850 were despatched to Kaifeng on a mission of enquiry by the London Society for the Promotion of Christianity among Jews. The diaries were subsequently edited by Bishop George Smith and published in Shanghai in 1851 under the title The Jews of K’ae-fung-foo: being a narrative of the mission of inquiry to the Jewish Synagogue of K’ae- fung-foo…
The main purpose of the expedition was to establish contact with the isolated Kaifeng Jews, to learn about their community and way of life, and to retrieve Holy Books from their ancient synagogue. It was on their second visit to Kaifeng in spring 1851 that the two Chinese missionaries obtained forty small biblical manuscripts and purchased six Torah Scrolls (out of twelve Torah scrolls seen on their previous trip) paying the Jewish community 400 taels of silver, the equivalent of about £130.
On December 11th, 1852, the London Society for the Promotion of Christianity among the Jews presented one of the six retrieved Torah scrolls to the British Museum. The scroll, which has been part of the British Library’s Hebrew collection since 1973, is composed of ninety-five strips of thick sheepskin sewn together with silk thread, rather than with the customary animal sinew. Its 239 columns of unpunctuated Hebrew text are written in black ink in a script that is similar to the square Hebrew script used by the Jews of Persia.
Kaifeng Torah Scroll. (Kaifeng, China, 1643-1663)
According to scholars, the Torah scrolls originating in Kaifeng were most probably created between 1643 and 1663. Each is marked with an identifying number placed on the reverse of the last skin. The numbers were written in Hebrew and each individual scroll was dedicated to one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. For example, the British Library scroll bears the letter ב (bet, i.e. number 2) and was dedicated to the Tribe of Shim‘on. Only seven have survived and are currently preserved in various European and American libraries. Research on the extant Kaifeng Torah scrolls indicates that they were copied from several models of yet undetermined provenance. The considerable number of errors and inaccuracies found in the texts shows that the scribes who wrote them were amateurs whose knowledge of Hebrew was rather poor.
The rolled Kaifeng Torah Scroll showing the Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews’ inscription. (Kaifeng Torah Scroll. Kaifeng, China, 1643-1663)
The Jews of Kaifeng made significant contributions to Chinese society. Several community members became officials or military officers, their achievements documented in provincial Chinese gazetteers. A notable figure, Chao Ying-ch’en, played a significant role in restoring the Kaifeng synagogue after a flood. His leadership and dedication to the community were instrumental in preserving their religious practices and ensuring the continuity of their cultural heritage.
The community left behind significant historical artifacts, including four Chinese stone inscriptions from 1489, 1512, 1663, and 1679. These inscriptions provide invaluable insights into the community’s history, religious practices, and interactions with their Chinese neighbours. The earliest stele from 1489 commemorates the construction of the 1163 synagogue and mentions that the Jews brought Western cloth as tribute for an emperor, who welcomed them with the words: “You have come to Our China…preserve the customs of your ancestors, and hand them down at Kaifeng.”
Modern China
The 20th century brought significant challenges to the Jews of Kaifeng. The fall of the Qing Dynasty, the establishment of the Republic of China, and later the Communist Revolution, brought about political and social upheaval that impacted the Jewish community. Many of the remaining Jews began to assimilate further into Chinese society, losing touch with their Jewish heritage.
The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) posed a particularly harsh period, during which religious practices were suppressed. The few Jewish families in Kaifeng had to hide their religious artifacts and refrain from public worship to avoid persecution. This period significantly eroded the visible presence of Jewish life in Kaifeng, leading to a further decline in community cohesion. By the mid-19th century, the community barely retained any of its Jewish knowledge. Despite these challenges, some traditions and memories of Jewish customs were passed down through generations, keeping the embers of their heritage alive. These stories and traditions became crucial in the later efforts to revive and preserve the Jewish heritage of Kaifeng.
Between 500-1,000 people living in Kaifeng today claim to be Jews. While most do not speak Hebrew, celebrate Jewish holidays, or practice traditional religious beliefs, these Chinese citizens still call themselves Jewish. Some members of the community remember celebrating Passover and Yom Kippur as children or having Stars of David in their childhood homes.
In 2016, the communist Chinese government, which opposes all religion, shut down the few existing Jewish organisations in Kaifeng and forced the small Jewish community to celebrate, learn, and pray in private. Additionally, the authorities removed all public signs of Jewish history in Kaifeng and members of the local Jewish community have reportedly been monitored by the authorities.
In Israel and other parts of the world, descendants of Kaifeng Jews continue to honour their heritage. They celebrate their unique customs, culinary traditions, and religious practices, ensuring that the memory of Kaifeng Jewry remains alive.
Among the remarkable artefacts associated with the Kaifeng Jews is a unique Scroll of Esther, adorned with Chinese illuminations by three different artists. This scroll, part of the Roth collection, is a testament to the cultural fusion and artistic contributions of the Kaifeng Jewish community.
18th century Scroll of Esther with Chinese illustrations, Roth collection
Today, there are Hebrew communities in China that are not Jewish but have become fluent in the Hebrew language for business purposes. Is it because of the Kaifen Jews? One may think they may have had some influence.
Nevertheless, the Kaifeng Jews’ history serves as a powerful reminder of the global reach and adaptability of Jewish communities. It underscores the importance of preserving Jewish cultural heritage and fostering connections between past and present.
*there are around 15 million Hebrew speakers around the world
**it’s not all that different from modern English speakers attempting to understand someone using Shakespearean English.
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Sources
Anson H. Laytner & Jordan Paper, eds. The Chinese Jews of Kaifeng: a millennium of adaptation and endurance. Lexington Books, 2017.
Charles William White. Chinese Jews, a Compilation of Matters Relating to the Jews of K’aifeng Fu. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1942).
Donald Daniel Leslie. The survival of the Chinese Jews: the Jewish community of Kaifeng. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972.
Michael Pollak, The Torah Scrolls of the Chinese Jews. Dallas: Wayside Press, Inc., 1975, 34 and passim.
Sidney Shapiro. Jews in Old China, Studies by Chinese Scholars. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1984), 2001.
Ursula Sims-Williams. “Jewish merchants in the desert,” in Silk Roads: Peoples, Cultures, Landscapes, edited by Susan Whitfield (London: Thames and Hudson, 2019), p. 252.
